Independent sample Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test W and P values (P < 0.05 in bold) for comparisons between groups and subgroups. BIS, Barratt Impulsivity Scale; BVMT, Brief Visuospatial Memory Test; CRT, choice reaction time; PT, People’s Test; FrSBe, Frontal Systems Behavior; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Score; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; LARS, Lille Apathy Rating Scale; RDI, Recognition Discrimination Index; RT, reaction time; WASI, Wechsler Abbreviated Scale for Intelligence; WTAR, Wechsler Test of Adult Reading.
| Outcome measure | TBI versus healthy participants | Disabled versus good recovery TBI subgroups | |||||||
| TBI | Controls | W | P | Disabled TBI subgroup | Good recovery TBI subgroup | W | P | ||
| means (±SD) | means (±SD) | means (±SD) | means (±SD) | ||||||
| Age (years) | 49.7 (10.3) | 54.2 (12.1) | 80 | 0.16 | 49.9 (10) | 49.3 (11.2) | 35 | 0.29 | |
| Time since injury (years) | 31.1 (7.6) | — | — | — | 32.9 (7.4) | 28.7 (7.5) | 66.5 | 0.39 | |
| Education (years) | 12.5 (3.6) | 11.5 (2.8) | 124.5 | 0.73 | 11.5 (3.2) | 13.9 (3.8) | 33.5 | 0.15 | |
| Premorbid intelligence | WTAR (scaled) | 101.4 (16.4) | 110.3 (10.8) | 76.5 | 0.13 | 92.6 (16.1) | 113.1 (6.8) | 9.5 | 0.002 |
| Cognitive impairment | MMSE (current) | 27.8 (2.3) | 29.5 (0.9) | 57.5 | 0.017 | 26.5 (2.3) | 29.6 (0.5) | 4 | <0.001 |
| MMSE (change) | −0.5 (2.3) | — | — | — | −1.3 (2.4) | 1 (1.4) | 7 | 0.041 | |
| MMSE (change per year) | −0.026 (0.131) | — | — | — | −0.073 (0.134) | 0.058 (0.081) | 7 | 0.045 | |
| Logical reasoning | WASI matrix reasoning | 22.7 (8.2) | 25.2 (7) | 87 | 0.46 | 18.1 (7.3) | 28.9 (4.4) | 8.5 | 0.001 |
| Processing speed | Trail making test A (s) | 39.9 (20.6) | 28.9 (14.4) | 153 | 0.079 | 49.7 (22.9) | 27.9 (7.6) | 81 | 0.016 |
| Trail making test B (s) | 106.8 (69.8) | 57.4 (18.3) | 158 | 0.049 | 140.8 (75.3) | 65.2 (30.6) | 81 | 0.016 | |
| Stroop combined baseline (s) | 50.8 (10.8) | 41.1 (8.5) | 175 | 0.017 | 52.7 (12.3) | 48.2 (8.6) | 67 | 0.38 | |
| CRT RT (ms) | 579 (121) | 512 (103) | 160.5 | 0.077 | 645 (115) | 491 (53) | 94 | 0.003 | |
| Executive function | Trail making test B-A (s) | 66.9 (56) | 28.5 (8.7) | 145 | 0.15 | 91.1 (63) | 37.3 (26.3) | 79 | 0.028 |
| Stroop inhibition-switch(s) | 93 (48.7) | 65.3 (20.4) | 164 | 0.056 | 116.4 (52.7) | 61.9 (14.2) | 100 | <0.001 | |
| Stroop inhibition-switch versus baseline (s) | 71.4 (50.7) | 51.8 (18.9) | 145 | 0.25 | 94.6 (54.5) | 40.42 (21.2) | 96 | 0.002 | |
| FrSBe scale–executive; current | 42.2 (8.2) | 26.3 (5.7) | 181.5 | <0.001 | 46 (8.2) | 37.1 (4.9) | 89.5 | 0.012 | |
| Apathy | LARS | −21.5 (10.1) | −27.2 (6.3) | 134 | 0.14 | −17.2 (10.7) | −27.9 (4.5) | 82 | 0.009 |
| FrSBe scale–apathy; current | 31.9 (9.6) | 21 (5.1) | 157.5 | 0.005 | 34.3 (10.5) | 28.8 (7.8) | 71 | 0.24 | |
| Impulsivity/ disinhibition | BIS | 66.6 (15.8) | 58.1 (6.9) | 118.5 | 0.29 | 72.9 (15) | 57.9 (13.2) | 75 | 0.039 |
| FrSBe scale–disinhibition; current | 33.5 (10.3) | 24.3 (5.3) | 143.5 | 0.028 | 36.1 (11.5) | 30.1 (7.7) | 70.5 | 0.25 | |
| Verbal memory | PT immediate recall | 18.3 (8.7) | 19.8 (8.2) | 102 | 0.61 | 16.4 (9.2) | 20.4 (7.8) | 39.5 | 0.32 |
| PT delayed recall | 6.4 (3.8) | 7.3 (3.6) | 100.5 | 0.56 | 5.6 (3.9) | 7.6 (3.5) | 38.5 | 0.28 | |
| HVLT immediate recall | 21.2 (5.3) | 25.5 (4.7) | 63 | 0.038 | 19.4 (4.9) | 23.7 (5) | 25.5 | 0.046 | |
| HVLT delayed recall | 6.3 (3.6) | 8.8 (2.5) | 65.5 | 0.048 | 5.3 (3.9) | 7.7 (2.7) | 34 | 0.16 | |
| HVLT RDI | 9.2 (2.4) | 9.9 (2) | 97 | 0.47 | 8.7 (2.8) | 10 (1.5) | 40 | 0.33 | |
| Visual memory | Paired associates learning (z-score) | −1.47 (0.81) | −0.73 (0.92) | 66 | 0.043 | −1.79 (0.77) | −1.03 (0.69) | 25.5 | 0.036 |
| BVMT immediate recall | 16.2 (8.3) | 21.7 (5.5) | 63 | 0.039 | 10.9 (3.7) | 23.3 (7.5) | 7 | <0.001 | |
| BVMT delayed recall | 6.8 (3.7) | 9.5 (1.4) | 64.5 | 0.044 | 4.7 (3.1) | 9.6 (2.4) | 12 | 0.003 | |
| BVMT RDI | 4.9 (1.3) | 5.9 (0.3) | 67.5 | 0.026 | 4.3 (1.4) | 5.9 (0.3) | 16 | 0.004 | |
| Visuospatial ability | Feature match test (z-score) | −1.46 (0.74) | −1.19 (0.92) | 94.5 | 0.42 | −1.88 (0.69) | −0.89 (0.31) | 6 | <0.001 |
| Mood disturbance | HADS-anxiety | 8 (6) | 3.9 (3.8) | 161.5 | 0.069 | 9.9 (5.6) | 5.3 (5.7) | 80.5 | 0.063 |
| HADS-depression | 4.5 (4.7) | 1.9 (2.5) | 156 | 0.11 | 6.4 (5.1) | 1.8 (2.4) | 86.5 | 0.022 | |